Six Levels of Thinking
For those of you who have taken Psychology
or Education courses, you may already be aware of the six
levels of cognition of Bloom’s Taxonomy. Knowing these
levels of thinking can help you develop your questioning techniques.
They are:
- Lower Order:
Knowledge - requires memory only, repeating information
exactly as memorized (define, recall, recognize, remember,
who, what, where, when)
Comprehension - requires rephrasing, rewording and comparing
information (describe, compare, contrast, rephrase, explain
the main idea)
Application - requires application of knowledge to determine
a single correct answer (apply, classify, choose, use, write
an example, solve, how many, which, what is)
- Higher Order:
Analysis
- identify motives or causes
- draw conclusions
- determine evidence (support, analyze, conclude,
why)
Synthesis
- make prediction
- produce original communications
- solve problems (more than one possible answer)
(predict, produce, write, design, develop, synthesize,
construct, how can we improve, what happens if, how
can we solve, can you devise)
Evaluation
make judgments and offer opinions (judge, argue, decide,
evaluate, assess, which is better, give your opinion,
do you agree, would it be better)
Questioning initiates different levels of thinking. When
the higher levels of thought are emphasized, the most effective
and meaningful learning takes place and the information is
stored in long-term memory. As a tutor you will find it useful
to ask lower order questions at the beginning of a session
to establish the level of content that your tutees know. As
the session progresses, ask higher order questions that require
the tutees to summarize patterns and suggest strategies for
learning and retention.
Close-Ended Questions vs. Open-Ended Questions
Considering the six levels of cognition, close-ended questions
usually elicit short specific answers that demonstrate knowledge,
comprehension and application of facts. Open-ended questions
will elicit responses that include analysis, synthesis or
evaluation of material.
If you find that you are getting short, quick answers from
your tutees and little discussion, reflect upon your questioning
techniques. Are you asking questions that only require factual
answers? (Example: what is the radius? What is the formula
for Boyle’s Law? What is the subject of the sentence?)
Certainly some of these questions are needed to check facts
at the beginning of a session. To explore the tutee’s
understanding of material, students need the opportunity to
expand upon the basic facts. For example: How are the problems
from this section/chapter different from (or like) the problems
of the previous sections/chapters?
It takes time and practice to develop your questioning techniques.
To help you with this process we ask you to complete the "Summary
of Session" report after each tutorial session as way
to help you reflect on the questions you used and your communication
patterns (i.e.. initiation-reply or explain – active
listening).
Additional Things to Consider
- Always use a questioning strategy, as tutees need to
be guided through a process.
- Be careful not give too much information in the questions
you ask.
- Formulate questions starting with "why" or
"how" or "what are the factors", "what
contributes to" what is the cause and effect"
etc. These questions starters challenge critical thinking.
- Phrase your questions carefully so that you are clearly
asking one question at a time.
- When tutees indicate that they do not understand the
question, rephrase the question to clarify it. Avoid asking
the same question again.
- When tutees answer a question incorrectly, ask them to
explain their answer. If there is a misunderstanding of
the question, clarify the question. If it is a lack of understanding
of content, either direct the tutees to the text or ask
a question that breaks the content into a smaller part.
Review Chapter 3 of "The Master Tutor – A Guidebook
for more Effective Tutoring"
The Informal Quiz
The informal quiz is not to be used to formally evaluate
student work. Instead, it develops and reinforces comprehension,
improves retention of information, stimulates interest in
a subject area, and promotes student participation in the
tutoring session. It enhances an educational experience in
the following manner:
Generates student trust;
Provides the student an opportunity to demonstrate competence;
Promotes student self-testing;
Facilitates student’s ability to interpret, answer
and predict test questions.
The goals may appear to be excessive for what is feasible
within a single tutoring session; however, these goals can
be accomplished in a small way each time the procedure is
used. The informal quiz frequently is used at the beginning
of the session. The whole procedure may take no more than
10 to 15 minutes. However, the discussion generated by one
or more questions may become the focus of the tutoring session.
Students may answer questions orally, on paper or on the board.
They may collaborate to answer questions, use their textbooks,
notes, handouts, etc. Use it to evaluate knowledge, or lack
thereof and to promote group discussion.
Mapping and Matrices
Students need an overview or a framework on which to hang
information. Visual models can help them to organize the material
and provide an easy mechanism to remember the sequencing of
information.
The first time a matrix or map is introduced; you should provide
a sample for the student to use. When the student demonstrates
an understanding of the concept of mapping then you can encourage
them to spontaneously make up matrices or maps as they discuss
various topics.
Post Exam Survey
The following are some questions students might like to
think about after taking an exam. Answers to these questions
may help them focus on effective exam preparation strategies.
Do not use this as a formal handout, but as a basis for discussing
exams and exam preparation.
- Which part of the exam was the easiest for you?
Why? (May get into essay, multiple choice, true/false, short
answer type questions. If so, explore the appropriate areas
as you continue with the questions.)
- Which part of the exam was the most difficult?
Why?
- Which of the following activities did you complete
prior to the exam?
All required reading assignments
Preparation and review of all reading notes
Review of lecture notes
Self-testing of material to be covered by the exam
Prediction of possible questions by you prior to the exam
Study with friends
- Which of the above did you find most helpful
in preparing for this exam?
- What activities work best for different types
of questions? (True/False, Multiple Choice, etc.)
- How much time (in hours) did you spend preparing
for the exam?
- Did you feel prepared when you walked into the
exam? Why or why not?
- How might you study differently for the next
exam?
Note taking in class and Note Processing
Have students reading their notes. How does the professor
indicate what’s important to know? What shape are their
notes in? Are their notes organized? Will they be able to
read their notes to prepare for an exam? Would a loose-leaf
notebook be better to use than a spiral one? Would graph paper
be better to use for particular subjects?
Note taking can be made easier if students prepare for lectures
by reading or at least previewing the material to be covered
in advance. The vocabulary will then be somewhat familiar
which allows for better spelling and organization of notes.
Every person will take notes differently. But whatever they
do, it should be consistent. If abbreviations are used, a
key should be placed at the top of the page to avoid confusion.
(ie. Vit.= vitamin, m = mole, e = electron, etc.)
As soon as possible after a lecture, notes should be reviewed
and edited. Incomplete areas can be filled in from reading
the text. Key points can be highlighted and extra definitions
inserted if necessary.
Share your thoughts and ideas on note taking. What helped
you and how do you process your notes? Remember our goal is
to help students learn appropriate study skills so they can
become effective learners. Students cannot apply themselves
until they have the skills to do so. Integrate the Cornell
Note-taking Strategies.
Review The Textbook
Discuss the process of previewing and reviewing chapters.
Talk about the benefits of taking chapter notes vs. highlighting/marking
textbooks. Whenever possible, refer students to their textbooks
for information and answers to questions. Most students do
not know how to use their textbook well and often they avoid
using it at all. Give them a tour of their text; show them
the benefits of how the text is formatted and how to use the
chapter summaries , captions charts and graphs to their advantage.
Also try to help them make connections from chapter to chapter.
Ask them to identify how content from a previous chapter relates
to next chapter. Ask them to compare lecture note to the text.
How does the textbook differ from or similar to the lecture?
Reading involves physical and mental participation. The goal
is to comprehend, understand and assimilate the material.
Help students to avoid this mechanical process just to get
the assignment completed. Reading paragraph headings, graphs,
pictures and summaries is not only helpful to do prior to
lectures, but will also help students read with improved comprehension.
Integrate the SQ3R strategies.
Reversing Questions/Transferring Information
The following questions could be asked to help tutees focus
their attention on the general principles of new material
covered, homework problems or test questions. These are especially
useful in the math/science area and can be adapted for the
other disciplines.
- What are the different kinds of problems and
how can they be recognized?
- What is the format of the problem? Do the directions
indicate the specific technique to use?
- How are these different problems related ?
- How can this problem be restated?
- What are some other ways to word the question?
- What changes in the wording of the directions
that would indicate different procedures?
- Is there only one method to work this type of
problem or are there several techniques applicable? If several
techniques are appropriate, how does one choose which to
use?
- What means (if any) are available to check your
answer other than reworking the problem the same way?
- How are the problems from this section/chapter
different/alike from the problems of previous sections/chapters?
Predict Test Questions
Students have great difficulty preparing for tests. Help
them to learn how to predict test questions by using their
notes, textbooks and homework. Let students develop their
own questions and quiz each other. Encourage them to find
old exams and practice with them. Some texts offer study guides
and can be most useful in preparing for exams.
Cramming for tests is common. Homework and reading assignments
are often left to the last minute, leaving areas or confusion
ignored. Students will look to other for "the quick fix":
"Tell me what I need to know for this test so I won’t
have to study anymore." They become focused on the answers
and not the process. Help students to avoid this deadly trap,
as it will lead to many disappointments!
Encourage students to meet with their professors several days
in advance of a test. Try to time it so that the exam has
probably been written. Sometimes professors may subtly direct
students to study the appropriate material by how they answer
questions, give extra information and sometimes say: "And
don’t forget to review…."
Work on Vocabulary and Terminology
Use flash cards or develop other memory games to help students
learn difficult concepts, vocabulary, etc. Students often
do not know "how" to approach learning something.
If they haven’t been exposed to a technique or a "trick
of the trade" then they have no basis from which to work.
Share your ideas. When working on vocabulary, be sure students
can give the definition in their own words apply the information
to a problem. Also ask them definitions and see if they can
name the term.
Have students repeat or write definitions in their own words
instead of repeating "the textbook version". This
helps you to determine whether they really do understand the
material.
Brainstorm Ideas
This is a very effective method in promoting discussion
of ideas and concepts. Often students will discover that they
really do not understand something as a result of the discussion
and it will prompt them to dig further for information. We
often "think" we understand until we have to actually
make applications! Students need to "say things out loud".
If they can successfully explain a concept to someone else,
they have accomplished two things. First, they have demonstrated
that they understand the concept. Secondly, they have used
another "sense" to reinforce that knowledge.
Paired Problem Solving
Have students work on different or the same problems and
compare methods and results. You will be amazed at the different
approaches students will take. Paired problem solving also
avoids one student being put on the spot and causing embarrassment.
When discussing the answers, stress the importance of writing
down all the steps in an orderly, neat fashion. Often students
become sloppy in their work, skip steps, do not label points
on graphs or make inadequate drawings of their work. This
causes them to make needless mistakes and professors have
difficulty grading their work appropriately.
Give Assignments As Appropriate
Assignments do not have to entail more of the same that
an instructor would give. Use your imagination and use assignments
to get your tutees involved in the learning process. Require
them to go to the library to find out more about a particular
topic. Ask them to see their professor to clarify some points
brought about by a tutoring session. Students need to learn
how to use the available resources on campus to learn how
to take advantage of them.
Use Popular Games, Models, Pictures and Graphs
Many tutors have adapted games such as Jeopardy, Pictionary,
Scattegories, Name That Tune, Wheel of Fortune, Monopoly,
Scrabble, Parcheesi, Sorry, Dominos, etc. to the subjects
they tutor. Using games is an excellent method to help students
learn material and apply it, learn to self-test and have fun
at the same time!
Use models, pictures and graphs to help students "see"
or visualize "what is happening". Ask them to draw
their own pictures of what something means to them. For example,
in Biology, ask students to draw pictures of photosynthesis.
During an exam, they will remember "their picture"
as opposed to a complicated graph from the text. Students
need to utilize all of their "senses" in learning.
Try to incorporate ideas/strategies where students constantly
reinforce their doing it and most of all—thinking it!
Minute Paper
Students are asked to take one or two minutes to respond
to the following two questions: "What was the most important
thing you learned during this session?" and "What
important question remains unanswered?" Tutors can use
these to help guide the next session and also to see what
the student most valued from the session. Comments from the
students can be used as an opening activity or discussion
item.
Focused Listing
Students focus on a single important term, name, or concept
and are directed to list several ideas that are closely related
to that "focus point." This helps the students to
see the connections of the ideas.
Empty Outlines
Use their lectures notes and textbook to complete the outline.
This helps students recall and organize the main points of
a lesson within an appropriate knowledge structure, making
retention more likely. It also provides a model for organization
that could be used with other material.
Memory Matrix
The matrix is a two-dimensional diagram, a rectangle divided
into rows and columns used to organize information and illustrate
relationships. Provide the row and column headings.
Categorizing Grid
In this activity the matrix and the headings are provided
by the tutor. A list of the contents of the matrix is also
provided. The tutee is then to fill the matrix with the individual
items. This allows an evaluation of the students’ "sorting
rules." Students discuss the rules that they used in
sorting the information.
Pro and Con Grid
This activity provides important information and analysis
of information.
One Sentence Summary
Students are asked to synthesize an entire lecture into a
single informative, grammatical, and long summary sentence.
Word Journal
First, the student summarizes a section of a chapter into
a single word. Second, the student writes a paragraph or two
explaining when he or she chose that word. This helps students
to write highly condensed abstracts and to "chunk"
large amounts of information for more effective storage in
long-term memory.
Concept Maps
Students draw or diagram the mental connections between a
major lecture concept and other concepts that the students
already know. This helps students see connections.
Problem Recognition Tasks
The students’ task is to recognize and identify the
particular type of problem each example represents. Identify
the problem type and the first step to take in solving is
significant hurdle for many students.
What’s the Principle?
This assesses students’ ability to associate specific
problems with the general principles used to solve them. This
focus is on the general principle and not the precise individual
steps taken to solve the problem.
Documented Problem Solutions
Students are asked to identify the specific steps taken to
solve the problem. By analyzing these detailed protocols,
students can identify other ways to solve a problem.
Application Cards
After students have dealt with an important principle, generalization,
theory, or procedure, the tutor hands out an index card and
asks them to write down at least one possible, real-world
application for what they have learned. This helps them to
connect newly learned concepts with prior knowledge. This
helps to increase relevance of what they are learning.
Student Generated Test Questions
Students are asked to generate possible examination questions.
Questions should start with "What are the factors,"
"What contributed to," "What are the causes
and effects," "Why…..," "How….."
Students begin to understand how well they can answer the
questions that they have posed. It also empowers students
to believe that they can predict and study for examinations
in a proactive manner.
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